Definition and History
Purposes
Prevalence
Tattoo Taboos
Procedure
The Tattoo as Art
Definition and History
A tattoo is a marking made
by inserting dark, indelible ink into the dermis
layer of the skin to change the pigment for
decorative or other reasons. Tattoos on humans
are a type of decorative body modification,
while tattoos on animals are most commonly used
for identification or branding. The term
"tattoo" or from Tahiti, "Tatau" is first
referred to by Joseph Banks, the naturalist
aboard Cook's ship the "Endeavour" in 1769 where
he mentions it in his journal. To paraphrase, he
states, "I shall now mention the way they mark
themselves indelibly, each of them is so marked
by their humor or disposition." Tattooing has
been practiced for centuries worldwide. The
Ainu, the indigenous people of Japan,
traditionally wore facial tattoos. Today you can
find Berbers of Tamazgha (North Africa), Māori
of New Zealand, Arabic people in East-Turkey and
Atayal of Taiwan with facial tattoos. Tattooing
was widespread among Polynesian peoples and
among certain tribal groups in the Taiwan,
Philippines, Borneo, Mentawai Islands, Africa,
North America, South America, Mesoamerica,
Europe, Japan, Cambodia, New Zealand and
Micronesia. The Polynesian practice became
popular among European sailors, before spreading
to Western societies generally. Despite some
taboos surrounding tattooing, the art continues
to be popular in many parts of the world.
Tattooing has been a
Eurasian practice at least since around
Neolithic times. Ötzi the Iceman, dating from
the fourth to fifth millennium BC, was found in
the Ötz valley in the Alps and had approximately
57 carbon tattoos consisting of simple dots and
lines on his lower spine, behind his left knee,
and on his right ankle. Other mummies bearing
tattoos and dating from the end of the second
millennium BC have been discovered, such as the
Mummy of Amunet from Ancient Egypt and the
mummies at Pazyryk on the Ukok Plateau.
Pre-Christian Germanic, Celtic and other central
and northern European tribes were often heavily
tattooed, according to surviving accounts. The
Picts were famously tattooed (or scarified) with
elaborate dark blue woad (or possibly copper for
the blue tone) designs. Julius Caesar described
these tattoos in Book V of his Gallic Wars (54
BC).
Purposes
Tattoos have served as rites of
passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of
religious and spiritual devotion, decorations
for bravery, sexual lures and marks of
fertility, pledges of love, punishment, amulets
and talismans, protection, and as the marks of
outcasts, slaves and convicts. The symbolism and
impact of tattoos varies in different places and
cultures. Tattoos may show how a person feels
about a relative (commonly mother/father or
daughter/son) or about an unrelated person.
Today, people choose to be tattooed for
cosmetic, sentimental/memorial, religious, and
magical reasons, and to symbolize their
belonging to or identification with particular
groups, including criminal gangs or a particular
ethnic group or law-abiding subculture. Some
Māori still choose to wear intricate moko on
their faces. In Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand,
the yantra tattoo is used for protection against
evil and to increase luck. In the Philippines
certain tribal groups believe that tattoos have
magical qualities, and help to protect their
bearers. Most traditional tattooing in the
Philippines is related to the bearer's
accomplishments in life or rank in the tribe.
Among Catholic Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
tattoos with Christian symbols would be inked on
to protect themselves from the Muslim Turks.
Extensive decorative tattooing is common among
members of traditional freak shows and by
performance artists who follow in their
tradition.
People have also been forcibly tattooed. A well
known example is the identification system for
inmates in Nazi concentration camps during the
Holocaust. Tattoos have also been used for
identification in other ways. For example, in
the period of early contact between the Māori
and Europeans, Māori chiefs sometimes drew their
moko (facial tattoo) on documents in place of a
signature. Tattoos are sometimes used by
forensic pathologists to help them identify
burned, putrefied, or mutilated bodies. Tattoo
pigment is buried deep enough in the skin that
even severe burns are not likely to destroy a
tattoo. For many centuries, seafarers have
undergone tattooing for the purpose of enabling
identification after drowning. In this way
recovered bodies of such drowned persons could
be connected with their family members or
friends before burial. Therefore tattooists
often worked in ports where potential customers
were numerous. The traditional custom continues
today in the Royal Navy (Great Britain) and in
many others. In the British army, a soldier’s
skin and equipment would be tattooed with a “D”
for “Deserter.”
Tattoos are also placed on animals, though very
rarely for decorative reasons. Pets, show
animals, thoroughbred horses and livestock are
sometimes tattooed with identification and other
marks. Pet dogs and cats are often tattooed with
a serial number (usually in the ear, or on the
inner thigh) via which their owners can be
identified. Also, animals are occasionally
tattooed to prevent sunburn (on the nose, for
example). Such tattoos are often performed by a
veterinarian and in most cases the animals are
anesthetized during the process. Branding is
used for similar reasons and is often performed
without anesthesia, but is different from
tattooing as no ink or dye is inserted during
the process.
When used as a form of cosmetics, tattooing
includes permanent makeup and hiding or
neutralizing skin discolorations. Permanent
makeup is the use of tattoos to enhance
eyebrows, lips (liner and/or lipstick), eyes
(liner), and even moles, usually with natural
colors as the designs are intended to resemble
makeup.
Medical tattoos are used to ensure instruments
are properly located for repeated application of
radiotherapy and for the areola in some forms of
breast reconstruction. Tattooing has also been
used to convey medical information about the
wearer (e.g. blood group).
Prevalence
Tattoos have
experienced a resurgence in popularity in many
parts of the world, particularly in North and
South America, Japan, and Europe. The growth in
tattoo culture has seen an influx of new artists
into the industry, many of whom have technical
and fine arts training. Coupled with
advancements in tattoo pigments and the ongoing
refinement of the equipment used for tattooing,
this has led to an improvement in the quality of
tattoos being produced. During the first decade
of the 21st century, the presence of tattoos
became evident within pop culture, inspiring
television shows such as A&E's Inked and TLC's
Miami Ink and LA Ink. The decoration of blues
singer Janis Joplin with a wristlet and a small
heart on her left breast, by the San Francisco
tattoo artist Lyle Tuttle, has been called a
seminal moment in the popular acceptance of
tattoos as art.
Formal interest in the art of the tattoo has
become prominent in the 1990s through the
beginning of the 21st century. Contemporary art
exhibitions and visual art institutions have
featured tattoos as art through such means as
displaying tattoo flash, examining the works of
tattoo artists, or otherwise incorporating
examples of body art into mainstream exhibits.
One such 2009 Chicago exhibition Freaks & Flash
featured both examples of historic body art as
well as the tattoo artists which produced it.
In many traditional cultures tattooing has also
enjoyed a resurgence, partially in deference to
cultural heritage. Historically, a decline in
traditional tribal tattooing in Europe occurred
with the spread of Christianity. However, some
Christian groups, such as the Knights of St.
John of Malta, sported tattoos to show their
allegiance. A decline often occurred in other
cultures following European efforts to convert
aboriginal and indigenous people to Western
religious and cultural practices that held
tattooing to be a "pagan" or "heathen" activity.
Within some traditional indigenous cultures,
tattooing takes place within the context of a
rite of passage between adolescence and
adulthood.
Many studies have been done of the tattooed
population and society's view of tattoos. In
June 2006, the Journal of the American Academy
of Dermatology published the results of a
telephone survey which took place in 2004. It
found that 36% of Americans ages 18–29, 24% of
those 30-40 and 15% of those 41-51 had a tattoo.
In September 2006, the Pew Research Center
conducted a telephone survey which found that
36% of Americans ages 18–25, 40% of those 26-40
and 10% of those 41-64 had a tattoo. In January
2008, a survey conducted online by Harris
Interactive estimated that 14% of all adults in
the United States have a tattoo, just slightly
down from 2003, when 16% had a tattoo. The
highest incidence of tattoos was found among the
gay, lesbian and bisexual population (25%) and
people living in the West (20%). Among age
groups, 9% of those ages 18–24, 32% of those
25-29, 25% of those 30-39 and 12% of those 40-49
have tattoos, as do 8% of those 50-64. Men are
just slightly more likely to have a tattoo than
women (15% versus 13%). And as for the world’s
most fully tattooed person? The prize goes to
Lucky Diamond Rich (born 1971, New Zealand).
This was a title formerly held by Tom Leppard.
Lucky’s tattoos cover his entire body, including
the inside of his foreskin, mouth and ears. He
holds the Guinness world record as of 2006,
being 100 percent tattooed. He is also a
performance artist and street performer whose
act includes sword-swallowing, unicycling and
juggling.
Tattoo Taboos
There is no
consistent Christian position on tattooing. The
majority of Christians do not take issue with
the practice, while a minority uphold the Hebrew
view against tattoos (see below) based on
Leviticus 19:28. Tattoos of Christian symbols
are common. Catholic Croats of Bosnia and
Herzegovina used tattooing, especially of
children, for perceived protection against
forced conversion to Islam during Turkish
occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
(1463-1878). This form of tattooing continued
long past its original motivation, though it was
forbidden during Yugoslavian communism.
Tattooing was performed during spring time or
during special religious celebrations such as
the Feast of St. Joseph, and consisted mostly of
Christian crosses on hands, fingers, forearms,
and below the neck and on the chest. Coptic
Christians who live in Egypt tattoo themselves
with the symbols of Coptic crosses on their
wrists.
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints (often referred to as
"Latter-day Saints" or "Mormons") have been
advised by their church leaders to not tattoo
their bodies. In the Articles of Faith of The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints it
states that the Latter-day Saints accept the
Bible to be the word of God; therefore, the
church believes that the body is a sacred temple
(as preached in the New Testament), and that
they should keep it clean, inside and out, which
the church interprets as forbidding tattoos.
Tattoos are usually considered forbidden in
Sunni Islam. According to the book of Sunni
traditions, Sahih Bukhari, The Prophet forbade
mutilation or maiming of bodies. Sunni Muslims
believe tattooing is haraam (i.e. forbidden)
because it involves changing the creation of
Allah, and because the Prophet cursed the one
who does tattoos and the one for whom that is
done. There is, however, difference of scholarly
Sunni Muslim opinion as to the reason why
tattoos are forbidden. The use of temporary
tattoo made with Henna is very common in Muslim
North-Africa. The permissibility of tattoos is
debated in Shi'a Islam, with some Shi'a pointing
to a fatwa by Ayatollah Sistani stating they are
halal (permitted).
Tattoos are forbidden in Judaism based on the
Torah (Leviticus 19:28): "You shall not make
gashes in your flesh for the dead, or incise any
marks on yourselves: I am the Lord." The
prohibition is explained by contemporary rabbis
as part of a general prohibition on body
modification that does not serve a medical
purpose (such as to correct a deformity).
Maimonides, a leading 12th century scholar of
Jewish law and thought, explains the prohibition
against tattoos as a Jewish response to
paganism. Since it was common practice for
ancient pagan worshipers to tattoo themselves
with religious iconography and names of gods,
Judaism prohibited tattoos entirely in order to
disassociate from other religions. In modern
times, the association of tattoos with Nazi
concentration camps and the Holocaust has given
an additional level for revulsion to the
practice of tattooing, even among many otherwise
fairly secular Jews.
Procedure
Tattooing involves
the placement of pigment into the skin's dermis,
the layer of dermal tissue underlying the
epidermis. After initial injection, pigment is
dispersed throughout a homogenized damaged layer
down through the epidermis and upper dermis, in
both of which the presence of foreign material
activates the immune system's phagocytes to
engulf the pigment particles. As healing
proceeds, the damaged epidermis flakes away
(eliminating surface pigment) while deeper in
the skin granulation tissue forms, which is
later converted to connective tissue by collagen
growth. This mends the upper dermis, where
pigment remains trapped within fibroblasts,
ultimately concentrating in a layer just below
the dermis/epidermis boundary. Its presence
there is stable, but in the long term (decades)
the pigment tends to migrate deeper into the
dermis, accounting for the degraded detail of
old tattoos (fading).
Some tribal cultures traditionally created
tattoos by cutting designs into the skin and
rubbing the resulting wound with ink, ashes or
other agents; some cultures continue this
practice, which may be an adjunct to
scarification. Some cultures create tattooed
marks by hand-tapping the ink into the skin
using sharpened sticks or animal bones (made
like needles) with clay formed disks or, in
modern times, needles. Traditional Japanese
tattoos (Horimono) are still "hand-poked," that
is, the ink is inserted beneath the skin using
non-electrical, hand-made and hand held tools
with needles of sharpened bamboo or steel. This
method is known as tebori.
The most common
method of tattooing in modern times is the
electric tattoo machine, which inserts ink into
the skin via a group of needles that are
soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an
oscillating unit. The unit rapidly and
repeatedly drives the needles in and out of the
skin, usually 80 to 150 times a second. This
modern procedure is ordinarily sanitary. The
needles are single-use needles that come
packaged individually. The tattoo artist must
wash not only his or her hands, but they must
also wash the area that will be tattooed. Gloves
must be worn at all times and the wound must be
wiped frequently with a wet disposable towel of
some kind.
Prices for this service vary widely globally and
locally, depending on the complexity of the
tattoo, the skill and expertise of the artist,
the attitude of the customer, the costs of
running a business, the economics of supply and
demand, etc. The time it takes to get a tattoo
is in proportion with its size and complexity. A
small one of simple design might take fifteen
minutes, whereas an elaborate sleeve tattoo or
back piece requires multiple sessions of several
hours each.
The modern electric tattoo machine is far
removed from the machine patented by Samuel
O'Reilly in 1891. O'Reilly's single-coil machine
was based on the rotary technology of the
electric engraving device invented by Thomas
Edison. The first twin coil machine, the
predecessor of the modern configuration, was
invented by another Englishman, Alfred Charles
South of London, in 1899. Modern tattoo machines
use electromagnetic coils.
Early tattoo inks were obtained directly from
nature and were extremely limited in pigment
variety. Today, an almost unlimited number of
colors and shades of tattoo ink are
mass-produced and sold to parlors worldwide.
Tattoo artists commonly mix these inks to create
their own unique pigments. A wide range of dyes
and pigments can be used in tattoos, from
inorganic materials like titanium dioxide and
iron oxides to carbon black, azo dyes, and
acridine, quinoline, phthalocyanine and naphthol
derivates, dyes made from ash, and other
mixtures. Iron oxide pigments are used in
greater extent in cosmetic tattooing. Modern
tattooing inks are carbon based pigments that
have uses outside of commercial tattoo
applications. In 2005 at Northern Arizona
University a study characterized the makeup of
tattoo inks (Finley-Jones and Wagner).
The FDA expects
local authorities to legislate and test tattoo
pigments and inks made for the use of permanent
cosmetics. In California, the state prohibits
certain ingredients and pursues companies who
fail to notify the consumer of the contents of
tattoo pigments. There has been concern
expressed about the interaction between magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) procedures and tattoo
pigments, some of which contain trace metals.
Allegedly, the magnetic fields produced by MRI
machines could interact with these metal
particles, potentially causing burns or
distortions in the image. The television show
MythBusters tested the hypothesis, and found no
interaction between tattoo inks and MRI.
Professional tattooists rely primarily on the
same pigment base found in cosmetics. Amateurs
will often use drawing inks such as low grade
India ink, but these inks often contain
impurities and toxins which can lead to illness
or infection.
The properly equipped tattoo studio will use
biohazard containers for objects that have come
into contact with blood or bodily fluids, sharps
containers for old needles, and an autoclave for
sterilizing tools. Certain jurisdictions also
require studios by law to have a sink in the
work area supplied with both hot and cold water.
Proper hygiene requires a body modification
artist to wash his or her hands before starting
to prepare a client for the stencil, between
clients, and at any other time where cross
contamination can occur. The use of single use
disposable gloves is also mandatory. In some
states and countries it is illegal to tattoo a
minor even with parental consent, and (except in
the case of medical tattoos) it is usually not
allowed to tattoo impaired persons, people with
contraindicated skin conditions, those who are
pregnant or nursing, those incapable of consent
due to mental incapacity or those under the
influence of alcohol or drugs.
Before the
tattooing begins the client is asked to approve
the final position of the applied stencil. After
approval is given the artist will open new,
sterile needle packages in front of the client,
and always use new, sterile or sterile
disposable instruments and supplies, and fresh
ink for each session (loaded into disposable ink
caps which are discarded after each client).
Also, all areas which may be touched with
contaminated gloves will be wrapped in clear
plastic to prevent cross-contamination.
Equipment that cannot be autoclaved (such as
counter tops, machines, and furniture) is wiped
with an approved disinfectant.
Tattoo artists, and people with tattoos, vary
widely in their preferred methods of caring for
new tattoos. Some artists recommend keeping a
new tattoo wrapped for the first twenty-four
hours, while others suggest removing temporary
bandaging after two hours or less. Many
tattooists advise against allowing too much
contact with hot tub or pool water, or soaking
in a tub for the first two weeks. This is to
prevent the tattoo ink from washing out or
fading due to over-hydration and to avoid
infection from exposure to bacteria and
chlorine. In contrast, other artists suggest
that a new tattoo be bathed in very hot water
early and often. General consensus for care
advises against removing the scab that forms on
a new tattoo, and avoiding exposing one's tattoo
to the sun for extended periods; both of these
can contribute to fading of the image. Most
importantly, it is agreed that a new tattoo
needs to be kept clean. Various products may be
recommended for application to the skin, ranging
from those intended for the treatment of cuts,
burns and scrapes, to cocoa butter, hemp,
salves, lanolin, A&D or Aquaphor. Oil based
ointments are almost always recommended to be
used in very thin layers due to their inability
to evaporate and therefore over-hydrate the
already perforated skin. In recent years,
specific commercial products have been developed
for tattoo aftercare. Although opinions about
these products vary, there is near total
agreement that either alone or in addition to
some other product, soap and warm water work
well to keep a tattoo clean and free from
infection. Ultimately, the amount of ink that
remains in the skin throughout the healing
process determines, in large part, how robust
the final tattoo will look. If a tattoo becomes
infected (uncommon, but possible if one neglects
to properly clean their tattoo) or if the scab
falls off too soon (e.g., if it absorbs too much
water and sloughs off early or is picked or
scraped off), then the ink will not be properly
fixed in the skin and the final image will be
negatively affected.
The Tattoo as Art
In order for a tattoo to become a true work of
art, the client must be completely resolved to
offer up a part of his body as a canvas. Anyone
who truly wants a quality tattoo will do his
homework and do a lot of planning. (This is
especially true of custom work, where there is
not already a stencil available or where the
client is adding further design to an
already-existing tattoo.) Reputable tattoo
artists have portfolios of their work available
for customers to thumb through to ensure that
their style of work is compatible with what the
client has in mind. Some artists (especially
beginners) are best at sticking to
single-dimension stencil work, while the more
advanced artists are amazingly adept at doing
custom work using shadings, dimension, and on
wide variety of themes.
The location of the tattoo will say a lot about
its wearer. Small, modest, token tattoos on the
inside of a wrist, around a ring finger, or on
the chest can signify something personal to the
wearer only. Those who are following a certain
culture and who are a bit braver might have a
simple band tattooed around their arm or ankle.
But for those interested in making a work of art
of their bodies, the possibilities are endless.
Especially popular in the early 21st century is
the complex, full-coverage work on the arms
called “sleeves.” Though the work must be done
in two or more sittings, the artist works with
his client to customize a combination of many
designs that meld together into a unique,
colorful masterpiece that is meant to be worn
any way but hidden. Some of the larger artwork
works best when tattooed over the shoulder,
upper or lower back, or on the calf of the leg.
A seasoned artist will be comfortable with any
suggestions or pre-printed ideas that are
brought into the parlor; he will be able to make
any necessary modifications or create a freehand
piece to make a personalized stencil.
The range of topics for tattoos is as wide as
the imagination itself. Fairies are a
particularly popular subject for women, as are
dragon scales, skulls, and tribal shapes for
men. Native American designs are very popular
in the United States. And the Japanese and
Chinese continue to have a great influence on
tattoo art, as well. In the Western world, the
sailor’s tattoo has given way to even more
“macho” designs, sometimes in the most painful
of places, such as the neck, the inside of the
upper arm, and the head. It is possible for
entire sagas to be spelled out in ink, spilling
down from neck to ankle, much as history is
conveyed on the Bayeux Tapestry or the Parthenon
Frieze. Women are less likely to do this but
rather choose to wear graceful designs across
their lower backs, calves, or feet. In many
cases the tattoos will be in inconspicuous
places to signifying commitment. In The
Illustrated Woman (published in 1992),
William de Michele states, “Tattoos signify
commitment. As permanent marks, they generally
indicate some personal transition of
significance. Often this relates to efforts to
gain or regain control of one’s life.” For
example, a woman who goes through a divorce
might do this to make her body different for a
new husband.
Is tattoo truly an art? Considering there are
now entire tattoo conventions devoted to the
practice and galleries (online and off) of
freehand work, it would seem so. Can it be
distasteful? Of course, if the wearer is not
wearing it “for art’s sake” and has some bone to
pick with society. But tattoos have been worn
even among royalty and politicians (King Harold
II, King Edward VII, Tsar Nicholas of Russia,
Thomas Edison, Sir Winston Churchill, Winston
Churchill’s mother, ex-US Secretary of State
George Shultz, and Barry Goldwater, for
example). More
than thirty million North Americans, alone now
bear tattoos, from the rich down through the
middle class and beyond. There is no longer the
stigma associated with body markings as in
earlier times. But whether you decide to wear
one or make a hobby of collecting many tattoos,
consider the saying “think before you ink.” It
is much more difficult to remove a tattoo than
it is to get one.
Here
are a couple quotes regarding the art and
significance of the tattoo:
You may lose your most valuable property through
misfortune in various ways. You may lose your
house, your wife and other treasures. But of
your moko, you cannot be deprived except by
death. It will be your ornament and companion
until your last day.
~Netana Whakaari of Waimana
A tattoo is a true poetic creation, and is
always more than meets the eye. As a tattoo is
grounded on living skin, so its essence emotes a
poignancy unique to the mortal human condition.
~V. Vale and Andrea Juno, Modern Primitives |
